by Elio — This whole thing started with an email from Mar­garet Lee, a pro­fes­sor at Ohlone Col­lege in Fre­mont and Newark, CA, ask­ing for an ex­pla­na­tion re­gard­ing the chemios­motic the­ory. Not be­ing com­fort­able with things elec­tri­cal, I turned to my friend and es­teemed col­league, Frank Harold for a more rea­soned re­sponse.